https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cya.2016.04.007
Paper Research
Searching most influential variables to brand loyalty
measurements: An exploratory study
Buscando las variables
con mayor influencia en mediciones de lealtad: un estudio exploratorio
Jorge Vera1
Andrea Trujillo2
1Tecnologico de
Monterrey, Campus Cd. de México, México
2Tecnologico de
Monterrey, Campus Santa Fe, México
Corresponding author: Jorge Vera, email: jorge.vera@itesm.mx
Abstract
This
research attempts to detect some brand loyalty key specific antecedent
variables based on three groups of measurements: consumer involvement, perceived
brand value (consumer brand equity), and customer satisfaction. Questions that
drove the study were: which variables from which of the three dimensions would
have the major effect on loyalty measurements? Would the explicatory variables
be consistent across all product categories? 649 respondents were divided into
six product categories. Regression models were obtained for each product
category and for each loyalty measurement. Perceived brand value variables
tended to have the higher impact on loyalty measurements. Self-identification
with the brand (self-congruence) and perceived brand quality tended to be the
variables with the major effect on loyalty measurements across all product
categories.
Keywords: Brand loyalty, Perceived
brand value, Consumer involvement, Customer satisfaction, Self-identification
with the brand, Perceived brand quality.
JEL classification: M31.
Resumen
En este estudio se pretende detectar
algunos antecedentes clave de la lealtad hacia la marca basándose en 3 grupos
de variables: involucramiento del consumidor, percepción de valor de marca y
satisfacción del cliente. Preguntas de investigación que dieron pie a este
estudio fueron: ¿qué variables de estos 3 grupos tienen mayor impacto en las
medidas de lealtad?, ¿es consistente este impacto en las diferentes categorías
de producto? La muestra se conformó por 649 consumidores separados en 6
categorías de producto. Se realizaron análisis de regresión para cada categoría
y para cada medida de lealtad. Las variables asociadas a la percepción de valor
de la marca fueron las de mayor efecto sobre las medidas de lealtad.
Particularmente, las variables que tuvieron mayor impacto en las distintas
categorías fueron autoidentificación con la marca y
calidad percibida de la marca.
Palabras clave: Lealtad hacia la marca, Valor percibido de
marca, Involucramiento del consumidor, Satisfacción del cliente, Identificación
con la marca, Calidad percibida de marca.
Códigos JEL: M31.
Received: 17/04/2015
Accepted: 06/04/2016
Introduction
Brand loyalty has become
a major topic in marketing and consumer research, and its importance as a
consumer–behavioral phenomena is that it is a business performance measurement
that can have an effect on business financial performance ( Khan, 2014; Khan, 2013; Kuo
& Chang, 2011; Storbacka, Strandvik,
& Grönroos, 1994; Hallowell, 1996 ). A review of the
literature reveals that research efforts have basically been along two lines,
one offering explanations of what it is and which dimensions conform it as a
construct ( Oliver, 1999;
Rundle-Thiele & Mackay, 2001; Salegna &
Goodwin, 2005 ), and the other searching for factors that can predict it and
strategies that can effectively encourage it. In this second line, many
antecedents of loyalty have been proposed as single constructs that result in
many partial explanations ( Bloemer, De Ruyter, & Wetzels, 1999; Spreng & Mackoy, 1996; Yu
& Dean, 2001 ). In a more recent trend there are proposes more
holistic multi-construct explanations as antecedents to brand loyalty ( Aurier & Gilles Séré, 2012; Bei & Chiao, 2001; Curran & Healy, 2014; Lam, Shankar, Erramilli, & Murthy, 2004; Mattila,
2004; Qayyum, Khang, & Krairit, 2013; Suh & Yi, 2006 ).
This
study considers measurements of three constructs established in literature as
brand loyalty antecedents and efforts to determine which single variables have
the greatest statistical effect on loyalty measurements. In this manner, these
variables are grouped in: (1) consumer involvement with the product; (2)
perceived brand value; and (3) customer satisfaction. The theory is that
consumers tend to show loyalty toward a brand as long as they perceive a high
brand value (equity), a significant involvement with the product, and a high
brand satisfaction. Many studies have shown that satisfaction measurements ( Baumann, Elliott, & Burton, 2012; Espejel, Fandos, & Flavián, 2008; Froehling, 2008; Qayyum et al., 2013; Toelle, 2006
)
and consumer involvement with the product ( Hu,
2011; Ismail, Talukder, & Panni, 2006 ) lead to loyalty, but
there have been no studies that offer a more well-rounded assessment by
relating the diversity of variables that could explain loyalty measurements to
diverse product categories, as this study is intended to do. Although studies
addressing construct level relationships of antecedents to brand loyalty
provide strong theoretical explanations (as the majority of the published
studies have done), these explanations tend to be somehow too abstract and
unspecific. On the other hand, knowing that some particular variables
consistently explain loyalty measurements across different product categories
could allow the proposition of tactics that could be used to encourage
customers’ intentions toward a brand. Thus, this study attempts to contribute
to an understanding of how brand loyalty can be encouraged by some specific
variables in some specific product categories. Thus, the main research
questions in the current study are (1) which of the variables associated to
consumer involvement, perceived brand value, or customer satisfaction have the
greatest effect on loyalty measurements? and (2) are the significant
explicatory variables consistent across all product categories? Hypotheses and
other research questions are presented in the Framework section.
Theoretical background
Consumer involvement
components
There have been several
studies on consumer involvement and its components. Involvement is understood
as the quantity and type of information the consumer processes when making a
decision about which brand to buy. For the buyer, purchasing implies a certain
level of situational involvement and information processing ( Laurent & Kapferer,
1985, 1986; McQuarrie & Munson, 1987; Ober-Heilig,
Bekmeier-Feuerhahn, & Sikkenga,
2014; Schneider & Rodgers, 1996; Zaichkowsky,
1985 ). A review of the literature shows that the consumer involvement
concept has greatly evolved. Originally, it was treated as a one-dimensional
notion, but later different types of involvement were proposed, such as
risk-based involvement and importance-based involvement ( Laurent & Kapferer, 1985 ). Since 1985 a
significant amount of literature has sustained that an involvement profile,
formed by measurement of many components or dimensions, should be identified ( Jain & Srinivasan, 1990; Laurent & Kapferer, 1985; Mittal, 1989; Schneider & Rodgers, 1996
).
This profile will be different for each product category and for each consumer
segment ( Laurent & Kapferer,
1985).
Perceived
risk, symbolic value, product pleasure, and product relevance are some of the
consumer involvement components that have been incorporated into the
literature. As each component level increases, involvement becomes more complex
( Laurent & Kapferer,
1985 ). Authors concur in general terms on the existence of these
involvement components, although with certain variations on the exact type and
number ( Higie and Feick, 1989; Jain & Srinivasan, 1990; McQuarrie &
Munson, 1987 ). Evidence suggests recognition of six components, (1) interest in the
product, (2) perceived pleasure with the product, (3) symbolic or cultural
value of the product, (4) importance of the product, (5) product risk
importance, and (6) perceived product performance risk probability ( Laurent & Kapferer,
1985; Schneider & Rodgers, 1996 ). The IP6 scale (Vera, 2003 ) is adopted for this study as it
considers these six components.
Perceived brand value (brand equity)
The term “perceived brand value” used in
this study is based on the “consumer-based brand equity” term proposed by Feldwick (1996) , where “brand equity” can assume three
different meanings. First, it can be understood as a brand's monetary value;
second, as related to a brand's performance in the market, performance linked
to aspects such as awareness, perceived quality, and also loyalty; and third,
as a brand image—a description of the perceptions, associations, and beliefs
that the consumer may have about the brand. The last two uses are consistent
with a customer's appreciation of a brand, and are the ones commonly called
consumer brand equity ( Aurier & Gilles Séré, 2012; Feldwick, 1996; Khan,
Rahmani, Hoe, & Chen, 2015 ), or customer-based brand equity ( Allaway, Huddleston, Whipple, & Ellinger, 2011; Chen & Tseng, 2010; Keller, 1993 ). In this article is adopted the term
“perceived brand value” instead of “consumer brand equity” based on the name of
the adopted scale for its measurement ( Vera,
2008).
For consumer brand equity to be created,
consumers have to believe that there are important differences between brands
in the same product category ( Keller,
1993, 2008 ).
Forming strong, favorable, distinctive brand associations can positively affect
consumers’ responses ( Keller, 1993; Khan et al., 2015; Pinar, Girard, & Eser, 2012 ). Some authors, such as Aaker (1996) , consider that loyalty represent a
dimension of brand equity. Others, such as Keller
(1993, 2008) ,
adopt a vision where brand loyalty is a result of having a strong brand. In
other words, brand loyalty is considered a dependent variable of brand equity
rather than a dimension of it. This article follows this second idea, therefore
the measurements of brand value and brand loyalty were separated into different
groups. Thus, to measure perceived brand value, items related to loyalty were
not retaken from the adopted scale ( Vera,
2008 );
only items related to strong, favorable, distinctive brand connotations were
used.
Customer satisfaction measurements
Although there is no clear consensus to
give a single definition of satisfaction ( Sawmong & Omar, 2004 ), authors tend to agree that it derives
from a comparison process between previous experiences, expectations, and the
product's real performance ( Bei & Chiao, 2001; Oliver,
1980 ). It
is frequently explained as a continuum confirmation–disconfirmation of the
expectations that a customer has of a product or service ( Oliver,
1980, 1999 ).
There is no recognized standard scale for this construct, and even very
sophisticated measurements of satisfaction have been proven with limitations ( Nawi & Al Mamun, 2014; Reichheld, 2003 ). These limitations have to do in many
cases with stability and generalizability issues. Nevertheless, some of the
best-known, and frequently quoted satisfaction scales are the American Customer
Satisfaction Index (ACSI) ( Fornell, Johnson, Anderson, Cha, &
Bryant, 1996 ),
the European Customer Satisfaction Index (ECSI) ( Kristensen, Juhl,
& Østergaard, 2001 ), and the Malaysian Index of Customer
Satisfaction (MICS) ( Abdullah, Husain, & El-Nassir, 2001 ). In all three, satisfaction is measured
in three forms: overall satisfaction, distance between the product performance
and customer expectations, and distance between products’ perceived performance
and the ideal performance. Thus, measurements based on these three variables
are used for this study. Here, the participants were asked about their
cumulative satisfaction, as Johnson
and Fornell (1991) suggest. When cumulative satisfaction is
measured, the respondents consider all the experiences with a brand over time (
Fornell et al., 1996 ). According to different authors ( Fornell et al., 1996; Johnson, Gustafsson, Andreassen, Lervik, & Cha, 2001; Line & Johnson, 2003 ) cumulative satisfaction is a better
predictor for the future customers’ behavior than the satisfaction in a
specific transaction. Oliver (1980) found that satisfaction derived from past
experience precedes and influences post-purchase attitude. Hence, the concept
of cumulative satisfaction implies that customers rely on their entire
experience when forming intentions and making repurchase decisions ( Line
& Johnson, 2003).
Brand loyalty
Nowadays the concept of loyalty tends to
be considered a complex multidimensional phenomenon ( Aurier & Gilles Séré,
2012; Curran & Healy, 2014; Oliver, 1999; Qayyum
et al., 2013 ).
Measuring a single variable (for example, repurchasing) provides an incomplete
approach. Oliver (1999) points out that a customer goes through a
process of becoming loyal to a brand. First, he is loyal in a cognitive sense
when there is good information and positive previous experiences with the
brand. Next, there is loyalty in an affective sense, which is achieved when a
consumer is emotionally involved with the brand. Intentional loyalty is
reflected in a customer's willingness to purchase, repurchase, or recommend the
brand. Finally, action loyalty refers to the observed and actual repurchasing
of the brand.
Oliver (1999) is not the only author who has identified
different types of loyalty. Yu
and Dean (2001)
developed a study in which they recognized two components that affect loyalty.
The first is the cognitive, which is defined as the performance evaluation
perceived in terms of its adequacy as compared to expected standards. The
second is the emotional, which is formed by feelings whose object of reference
is the brand. Mattila (2004) defines loyalty as the relation between
relative attitudes and the pattern of repeated purchases. For Lam
et al. (2004)
however loyalty has two dimensions: recommendation and pattern repetition. In Rundle-Thiele
and Mackay (2001) loyalty measurement has two approaches.
In one, loyalty is defined in terms of actual purchases observed during a
period of time. This aspect is measured by real purchases, and the second
measurement refers to attitude. For the latter, loyalty measurements are based
on preferences, commitment, and purchase intention. Considering the above
approaches, Oliver's (1999) can be considered the most holistic. His
approach encompasses the dimensions of other authors, which is why it was the
one selected to determine the loyalty measurements used here. These phases
(components) of loyalty are described in the following paragraphs.
Cognitive phase . This is the first phase of loyalty. It is
guided by the information that the consumer has about a product or service,
especially regarding the costs and benefits of acquiring it. With this
information, the customer prefers a certain brand over its alternatives ( Oliver,
1999 ).
In this phase loyalty is driven by certain practical factors, such as price;
therefore, the bond with the brand is not as strong in this phase ( Sivadas & Backer-Prewitt, 2000). Oliver
(1999)
suggests that once this phase is accomplished then the other phases of loyalty
will follow in a sequential manner. Sawmong and Omar (2004) use the phases of loyalty proposed by Oliver
(1999) .
They measure cognitive loyalty with costs and benefits. Yu
and Dean (2001) also
define the cognitive component in the same way. They measure it in terms of
expectations, where meeting expectations implies a cognitive evaluation of the
benefits. Once a brand is considered sufficient, then it can be among a
customer's group of meaningful choices.
Affective phase . This can be explained as a customer's
bond with the brand based on the accumulation of pleasing experiences ( Baumann
et al., 2012; Oliver, 1999 ). This type of loyalty is different from
the rest since it involves a consumer's emotional attachment. In this stage,
however, consumers may also switch to another brand even if this bond exists ( Sawmong & Omar, 2004 ); for example, if the other brand offers
suddenly a much lower price ( Sawmong & Omar, 2004).
Intentional phase . In literature “intentional loyalty” is
also referred as “behavioral intention”. It is influenced by events of
emotional attachment toward a brand. It is during this phase when a customer's
sustained commitment toward the brand begins ( Oliver,
1999 ).
The Behavioral-Intentions scale, developed by Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman (1996) , considers four measurements of
intentional loyalty: recommendation, purchase intention, price sensibility, and
complaint behavior. In recent studies are used this type of measurements to
asses purchase intention ( Aurier & Gilles Séré,
2012; Khan et al., 2015 ).
Action phase . In this type of loyalty, habits and
routine behavioral responses already exist ( Oliver,
1999 ).
Here the customer chooses the same alternative regardless of the possibility
that other brands might be offering appreciable benefits. Some authors, such as
Sawmong and Omar (2004) , measured this type of loyalty in
supermarkets. They focused on aspects such as the lapse of time between one
purchase and another as well as on the money spent on each alternative.
Conceptual framework
In some previous studies
it has been exclusively linked satisfaction with loyalty ( Baumann et al., 2012; Espejel
et al., 2008; Froehling, 2008; Qayyum
et al., 2013; Toelle, 2006 ) while in others it has
been established consumer brand equity (perceived brand value) variables as
loyalty antecedents ( Chaudhuri, 1999;
Curran & Healy, 2014; Pinar et al., 2012; Qayyum
et al., 2013; Taylor, Celuch, & Goodwin, 2004 ). In others it has been
stated consumer involvement components as precedents for loyalty ( Hu, 2011; Ismail et al., 2006; Olsen, 2007; Suh &
Yi, 2006 ). Suh and Yi (2006) find that in low
involvement products satisfaction has a major effect on loyalty. On the other
hand, in high involvement products, other variable would have a major impact,
such as corporate image, advertising, and brand attitudes ( Suh & Yi, 2006 ). As previously noted, the
purpose of the present study is to outline certain key variables that could
explain brand loyalty based on: perceived brand value, consumer involvement,
and customer satisfaction, as it is shown in Fig.
1.
Thus, the present
article explores a wide range of variables that may significantly relate to
loyalty. As noted before, according to Oliver's
components (1999) , the following dependent variables (loyalty
dimensions) were established to assess brand loyalty:Cognitive
loyalty (favorable knowledge about the brand)Affective loyalty (emotional
attachment to the brand)Intentional loyalty (intentional behavior to purchase
the brand)Action loyalty (repurchase behavior)
In the
case of perceived brand value (consumer brand equity), this article considers Aaker's (1994, 1996) perspective on the
dimensions within the brand equity construct, using a scale developed to
measure brand equity profiles ( Vera,
2008 ) and selecting only the items related to brand favorable and
distinctive brand association performance. This scale also includes loyalty
items. Because the obvious overlap with the dependent variables, they were not
used. Thus the components used to assess this perceived brand value were:Perceived brand quality (how
good are the products under the brand)Perceived brand leadership (how innovative
its products are perceived)Perceived brand use-value (usefulness of the
products under the brand)Disposition to pay a higher price for the brand
(premium price)Self-identification with the brand (degree in which a consumer
relates himself to the brand's image, self-congruence with brand's personality)
If perceived brand
value, under many types of measurements, has been established as a loyalty
antecedent ( Chaudhuri, 1999; Liu, Xue, & Duan (2011); Nam, Ekinci, & Whyatt, 2011;
Taylor et al., 2004 ), then a positive effect between these variables and
the loyalty measurements is to be expected. Therefore, the hypothesis can be
expressed as: H1
Perceived
brand value measurements would have a positive relationship with loyalty
measurements.
This
study used several items to measure consumer involvement components. They were
obtained from a scale called IP6 ( Vera,
2003 ), developed to measure involvement profiles with Mexican consumers
based on six components. The IP6 takes elements from the scale developed by Laurent and Kapferer (1985) and also measures an
additional component (product importance) proposed by Schneider and Rodgers (1996) . Thus for consumer
involvement the measured variables were:Interest in
the productPerceived pleasure in the productProduct symbolic valuePerceived
product importance ( Schneider &
Rodgers, 1996 )Perceived product risk importancePerceived
product risk probability
Some
studies have empirically established a low positive relation between consumer
involvement and loyalty ( Hu, 2011; Quester, Karunaratna, & Lim, 2003 ). Even more, it has
been found that involvement can have a moderating effect between satisfaction
and loyalty ( Olsen, 2007; Suh &
Yi, 2006 ). In the current study it is assumed that as the consumer involvement
toward the product increases, so will the importance of the brand's evaluation.
Consequently, when the product implies a higher degree of involvement for the
consumer (higher interest, pleasure, importance, risk, and risk importance)
therefore it is assumed that he would try to find a brand of higher perceived
value that could guarantee the product performance. In other words, he will
look for a brand toward which he would be inclined to have a higher
psychological commitment and thus more loyalty ( Iwasaki & Havitz, 1998; Quester et al.,
2003 ). Therefore, a positive statistical association between involvement
components and loyalty measurements can be expected, hence:
H2: Consumer involvement measurements would have a positive relationship
with loyalty measurements.
Consistent with previous
approaches ( Abdullah et al., 2001;
Fornell et al., 1996; Kristensen
et al., 2001; Nawi & Al Mamun,
2014 ), in the present study the following three measurements (forms) are
used to assess customer satisfaction:Overall
satisfaction expressed toward the product performancePerceived
distance between product performance and client expectationsPerceived
distance between the product performance and its ideal performance
The
satisfaction and loyalty relationship has been widely dealt with in marketing
research literature. Thus, satisfaction has been established as an important
brand loyalty precedent ( Baumann et al., 2012; Bei & Chiao, 2001; Cronin,
Brady, & Hult, 2000; McDougall & Levesque,
2000; Olsen, 2007; Qayyum et al., 2013; Ryu, Lee, & Kim, 2012; Suh & Yi, 2006 ). In this line of
reasoning the assumption is that when a customer is more gratified with a brand
then he would manifest behavioral intentions and repurchasing behavior. The
corresponding hypothesis can be phrased as:
H3: Customer satisfaction
forms would have a positive relationship with loyalty components.
As brand perceived value,
consumer involvement and customer satisfaction have been previously proposed as
explanatory factors for brand loyalty; therefore, the three hypotheses here
presented can be considered as accepted principles. For this reason, the
current article does not rely on these hypotheses. The unique contribution of
the present study is based on an identification of a particular set of
independent variables that may explain different loyalty measurements in a
variety of product categories. The goal here is to find a consistent group of
specific variables that could be considered more effective as loyalty
generators in a wide range of product categories. Therefore, the research
questions that have driven the current research work can be expressed as
follows:
- Which of the independent variables established here would have a
greater significantly effect on the loyalty measurements?
- Which
of the three groups of independent variables (involvement, brand value or
satisfaction), would have the major effect on the loyalty measurements?
- To
what degree would the independent variables explain the loyalty
measurements?
- Would
the significant explicatory variables be consistent across all product
categories?
Methodology
Different product
categories were used to obtain a larger external validation. The selected six
product categories correspond to different levels of involvement, from high to
low, according to the type of selected consumers: laptops (high) women's dress
shoes (high); running shoes (medium-high); lipstick (medium-low); canned soda
(low); and bottled water (low). Previous studies related to loyalty have used
some of the same product categories as those posed in this one: Moradi and Zarei (2012) conducted a study with laptops; Matzler, Bidmon,
and Grabner-Kräuter (2006) had a sample of buyers
of running shoes; and Kim, Morris, and Swait (2008) used soft drinks.
As it
can be seen in many studies ( Laurent & Kapferer, 1985; Quester et al., 2003; Suh & Yi, 2006;
Van den Brick, Odekerken-Schröder, & Pauwels, 2006; Zaichkowsky, 1985 ) complex,
technological, hedonic and costly products tend to correspond to high consumer
involvement products as they demand an extensive decision-making process and
signify a high buying risk importance (bra, dress, T.V., photographic camera,
automobile). On the other hand, mass-produced inexpensive products of daily
consumption tend to correspond to low involvement products as they are chosen
with a short decision-making process and denote a low purchase risk importance
(instant coffee, soap, oil, toothpaste, detergent).
A
questionnaire was designed that included the items for the four groups of
variables. Given that variable measurement contemplated six product categories,
multi-category scales were necessary. The survey consisted of items posed in a
generic manner alluding to “the product.” At the beginning of the
questionnaire, the product's category was indicated. Buil, Martínez,
and de Chernatony (2013) conducted a study using
a similar methodology to evaluate the influences of brand equity on consumer
responses. They used six different questionnaires, one for each brand; each
respondent needed to be aware of the questionnaire's brand. Five-point
attitudinal scales were used with the options: totally agree, agree, neutral,
disagree, and totally disagree. Consumer involvement items were located at the
beginning of the questionnaire. The survey asked the respondent to name the
brand of the product, and then presented the rest of the items (for brand
value, for satisfaction toward the purchased product's brand, and for loyalty).
There were three items for each variable. Measurement reliability coefficients
are shown in Appendix 1 (Cronbach's alphas).
Cronbach's alphas is a highly trustworthy internal consistency reliability test
when it is used attitudinal scales in a multi-item measurement for a single
dimension ( Gliem & Gliem, 2003 ), as in this case. As shown in Appendix 1 , all the obtained alpha
coefficients can be considered between acceptable and good ( Darren & Mallery, 2003, p. 231; Gliem & Gliem, 2003 ). Only the item that best
represented the collinearity of each trio was used in the data analysis. Items
declarations are shown in Table 1 . To select the best
item from each trio, correlation coefficients were estimated between the three
items, and those that showed the highest correlations were chosen. Appendix 2 shows means, variances, and
correlations with loyalty measurements of these items.
To participate in the
study, four restrictions were established. The respondents had to be between
the ages of 18 and 35 years old and within the middle to upper-middle class
economic range. This consumer profile was chosen to ensure that each of the
respondents could be a regular consumer of each of the selected product
categories and to ensure some variability control over the sample. Furthermore,
the participants should have recently acquired one of the product categories
evaluated, and they had to remember the brand name and the general purchase
decision situation. Laptops had to be acquired within a year, running shoes and
women's dress shoes within six months or less, lipstick within a month, and
canned soda or bottled water had to have been purchased no earlier than the
previous day. For variable control, additional requirements of the participants
were: to belong to a household with one to three cars; to have at least one
credit card at home; and finally, to have traveled abroad no more than once
during the previous year. These characteristics are consistent with the middle
and upper middle class economic levels established for this study ( López, 2009, 2011 ). The questionnaires
were answered only by Mexican citizens who live in Mexico City. A convenience
sampling method was implemented in shopping malls at consumer flow points. The
sample was balanced by age and gender, except in the women's product categories
where only the age factor applied. The numbers of respondents per product
category were: laptop n = 153; women's dress shoes n = 81;
running shoes n = 99; lipstick n
= 83; canned soda 355 ml n = 143; and bottled water 600 ml n = 90 for a total of n = 649
participants.
For data analysis a
selection procedure was used to detect which of the independent variables were
statistically significant to each of the dependent variables. For each product
category, four regression models were obtained, one for each loyalty
measurement. To obtain each regression model, all the independent variables
(involvement, brand value, and satisfaction) were used. For each of the
dependent variables (loyalty measurements), significant independent variables
were gradually identified. To determine if each independent variable was
statistically significant, the t test
coefficient was observed. Coefficients had to achieve a p value of 0.05 or less. These processes were
repeated until only significant independent variables were left. For the final
model to be accepted, the constant had to be significant. Stepwise regression
was not used, due to anomalies commonly related to this technique; instead
subgroup selection of variables could be more useful and precise using biased
estimation to select subsets ( Hoerl, Schuenemeyer, & Hoerl, 1986; Roecker, 1991 ). Hence the procedures
used were case-by-case regressions, seeking individually statistical
significant variables and grouping them gradually in multiple regression
models. For example, with the current data, stepwise regression did not always
achieve final models with significant constants.
Results and discussion
Laptop
Regarding laptops, Table 2 shows that a lower level of determination
than what is common was achieved for cognitive loyalty than for both affective
and intentional loyalties. Oliver's (1999) theory suggests that
cognitive loyalty should be at least equal to affective loyalty. Furthermore,
from the large number of possible independent variables, only a relatively few
remained at the end of the selection process. This is consistent with the
results of the other product categories. Concerning the involvement variables,
most coefficients were negative, implying an inverse relationship to loyalty,
which contradicts with what the hypothesis ( H2 ) proposed. The highest
positive coefficients were obtained from perceived brand value variables,
implying that it (perceived brand value) is a strong antecedent to brand
loyalty measurements.
Women's dress shoes
For women's dress shoes, Table 3 shows that only the brand value
variables achieved significant coefficients. No involvement or satisfaction
variables surfaced. Consistent with Oliver's
(1999) theory about the stages of loyalty—from cognitive loyalty to
action loyalty—the degree of determination for each of the dependent variables
decreases.
Running shoes
It is interesting to
note in Table 4 that
lower determination coefficients were obtained for the running shoes category
than for those in the two previous categories (laptop and women's dress shoes).
Three out of the four loyalty variables (affective, intentional, and action)
related significantly to the perceived product importance (I) as well as the
distance between received and ideal.
Lipstick
In Table 5 it is noteworthy that in the
lipstick product category the majority of the significant independent variables
were related to the perceived brand value measurements.
Canned soda
It is noteworthy in Table 6 that in the canned soda category
no significant variables related to the consumer involvement measurements were
obtained. Perceived brand value variables were predominant.
Bottled water
Contrary to expectations, the cognitive
loyalty determination coefficient was lower than the determination coefficients
of the other measurements of loyalty. According to Oliver's
theory (1999) ,
higher degrees of explanation should be expected for cognitive and affective
loyalties than those for intentional and action loyalties.
In intentional loyalty is interesting to
note that out of the four independent significant variables, two belong to
involvement (product symbolic value, showing a negative coefficient, and
perceived product importance). In other product categories the pattern is that
only a few involvement variables tended to be significant.
As shown in Table
7 , for bottled water self-identification with the brand turned out
to be significant for the four types of loyalty. Compared to other product
categories evaluated here, there is a larger participation of involvement
variables compared to satisfaction variables. The perceived brand value
dimension contributed with the largest amount of independent variables to
explain loyalty measurements
Conclusions
As this article was
titled “an exploratory study”, it aims to test, without any kind of predisposition,
different variables to seek which ones can have a greater effect on loyalty
measurements in different product categories while trying to find if there is
any regularity across the different product categories concerning a common
group of explanatory variables. As pointed out in Table 8 , the brand value variables tended to
relate more consistently with the four types of loyalty throughout all product
categories in comparison with the other two groups of independent variables
(involvement and satisfaction). The customer satisfaction variables were also
significant in most of the products, though not with the incidence and weight
of the perceived brand value measurements. These conclusions are consistent
with correlations shown in Appendix
2.
An inconsistency with
the hypothesis ( H2
) was found in which consumer involvement measurements presented an unexpected
behavior. In only a few cases they surfaced as independent significant
variables, and in most of these the coefficients were negative, which is
consistent with what was found by Quester
et al. (2003) . This could indicate a slightly inverse relationship
between consumer involvement components and brand loyalty indicators. Perhaps
in the degree that a product implies more involvement, the customer becomes
more demanding toward the brand thereby challenging the loyalty toward it.
Nevertheless, the involvement variable that had significant effect on loyalty
measurements along a higher number of product categories was product
importance. The other two hypotheses ( H1 and H3 ) are supported by the results: the
correlation coefficients presented in Appendix 2 tend to confirm that the brand
value measurements, as the satisfaction measurements, have positive statistical
relationships with the loyalty measurements; the regression models shown
through Tables 2–7
also tend to confirm this.
Self-identification
with the brand (self-congruence) stood out as the independent variable with the
largest presence in most product category regression models. It also had
incidence in the majority of loyalty measurements. The self-identification
measurements used here are very consistent with the notion of “actual
self-congruence” with the brand's personality. As observed in the results of
the current study, previous evidence suggests that self-congruence is a
stronger antecedent to emotional brand attachment than other explanatory
variables ( Malär, Krohmer, Hoyer, & Nyffenegger, 2011 ). The self-identification
variable having a consistently effect on cognitive and affective loyalty
measurements, suggests an emotional connection. Accordingly, affective
commitment has been found as an important mediator between customer brand
experience and actual loyalty ( Iglesias,
Singh, & Batista-Foguet, 2011 ).
Another
independent variable with an important incidence was perceived brand quality.
Except for running shoes, this variable was present as significant in most
loyalty regression models in all the other product categories. This is
consistent with preceding literature in which brand quality is assessed as an
antecedent for expected outcomes as perceived value ( Chen & Myagmarsuren, 2011;
Cronin et al., 2000; Ulaga & Chacour,
2001 ).
In
almost all product categories, a similar behavior was observed for the
independent variables that showed an effect on loyalty measurements. This was
not the case in the running shoes category where a different tendency emerged:
perceived quality and self-identification with the brand were not significant
to explain brand loyalty measurements. In this category, brand value variables
had the lowest incidence presenting an equilibrium with the other two groups of
independent variables (involvement and satisfaction).
Another
result worth mentioning, because of a certain contradictory behavior compared
to the previous one (running shoes), was in the women's dress shoes category.
Here, all independent significant variables were from the group of perceived
brand value measurements. Here, no significant variable of satisfaction or
involvement emerged.
Concerning
the satisfaction group of variables, “received versus customer expectation” had
a greater effect on a larger number of product categories as well as in a
larger number of loyalty measurements. This variable had a significant effect
on loyalty measurements in five out of six product categories.
To
summarize, along product categories, out of all the independent variables in
this study, those that had a higher impact on loyalty measurements were three:
self-identification with the brand, perceived brand quality, and received
against client expectations. It is noteworthy that self-identification and
quality had a greater effect over variables as use-value, product importance
and satisfaction, suggesting an important role these two variables could play
in future studies.
Another
contribution of the present study is the proposal to collectively measure all
the variables involved. As a result, it attempts to provide a more well-rounded
assessment of loyalty. As observed, a single model cannot be offered. In its
place, the specific set of independent variables should be identified in each
product category. So it would be recommendable to develop further research
among several categories of the same level of involvement to contrast the
findings of this study in order to find a possible consistent model throughout
product categories.
Furthermore,
the variable relationship approach taken in this study does not allow to
support an integrated theoretical model. Therefore, a future study with a
structural multi-construct approach to test the relevance of
self-identification and perceived quality as key loyalty antecedents is
desirable.
Another
limitation of the present study is how action loyalty was measured. The
respondents were asked to give their perceptions about their past purchase
frequency behavior toward the brand. This was due to the different nature of
product categories selected for present study; their actual repurchase rates
would not be commensurable. To be more meticulous, however, the actual
repurchase rate of the brand should be measured.
Managerial implications
As discussed above, the
variables related to brand value have a higher incidence of loyalty variables
in all product categories. So, it is recommended that companies should not
forget that a strong brand is not just about having a name and an attractive
design. Behind the name and the design there must be a solid and differentiated
product and a consolidated corporate identity. Some of the suggested actions to
build or maintain a strong brand are: be aware of the changing needs of the
consumer, conduct market research constantly to know buying trends and
consumers’ values, tastes and key drivers; to monitor periodically the
strengths and weaknesses of competitors’ brands; and finally to develop a
constant self-analysis of their branding program in order to verify that the
brand and overall business strategy are aligned.
The
present work suggests that the mix of variables that have an effect on brand
loyalty measurements varies noticeably from one product category to another.
From a marketer standpoint it is important to understand that if brand
perceived value is going to play an important role, it should be recognized
that, depending on each product category, other elements can be very
influential. Business managers who handle another product category are urged to
replicate this study, making changes specifically for their category.
Based on
the results from the categories that were analyzed, only the women's dress
shoes category depended almost exclusively on the perceived brand value
variables. This is understandable, as this kind of product is often chosen
based on hedonistic reasons rather than functional ones.
Given
the results for laptops, it may be inferred that for technological products,
loyalty may depend on a more complex mix of elements due to the impact of
consumer involvement and satisfaction variables. Therefore, for technological
product categories, a communication strategy that is more related with the
consumer involvement aspects of the products would be recommendable. For
example, an advertising campaign could be designed to arouse interest in the
product by emphasizing its symbolic value. In the results for laptops,
intentional loyalty can be observed as having to do with the probability that
the purchase would be risky. Therefore, communication content should include
elements that are conceived to reduce the perceived risk. To increase
satisfaction, the suggestion is to generate customer feedback mechanisms in
order to obtain post-purchase information. In this sense a company could keep
up with the customers’ expectations, thereby being able to orient the
strategies to meet them.
As
shown in Table 8 ,
the high involvement products (laptops and women's dress shoes) have a greater
number of variables affecting the intentional loyalty, so a recommendation for
managers is to design loyalty programs (reward programs) that encourage their
customers’ subsequent repurchases. In the middle involvement products (running
shoes and lipstick), cognitive loyalty is the one with more recurrence (see Table 8 ), so a possible
course of action for marketers is to develop communication based on benefits
and to offer a guarantee as well. In low involvement products, as affective
loyalty is the one with more occurrence (see Table 8 ), staying connected to the client on
an emotional level using communication tactics such as storytelling can be
recommended.
In
marketing applications, the final objective is to achieve action loyalty
(repurchasing). From a marketeer's perspective, the
other phases of loyalty are merely elements to generate loyal actions by the
customers. In other words, the development of strategies to achieve cognitive,
affective, and intentional loyalty will pave the way for repurchasing. From the
rational and emotional points of view, these strategies may sensitize the
consumer to repurchase based on a high value perception. The results suggest
that action loyalty is not only the most difficult to achieve, but it is also
very difficult to statistically explain. In this study, self-identification
with the brand is the one variable that showed a major effect on action
loyalty. As previously noted, in five of the six product categories, this
variable offered a significant degree explanation for the repurchase variable.
In marketing application this could be an important element for strategic brand
management as well as for shaping marketing mix tactics. In this way the
customer can identify with the offer that is being made. Therefore
, encouraging consumers’
self-identification with the brand should be considered a more important brand
management strategy than it has been in the past.
Appendix 1: Items (in Spanish) and measurement reliability coefficients (Cronbach's
Alpha)
Appendix 2: Variable means, variances, and Person correlations
with loyalty measurements
Correlations
0.21–0.29 are significant at a .05 p
value. Correlations above 0.31 are significant at a .01 p value. Brand quality (bq),
brand leadership (bli), brand use-value (buv), higher price disposition (hpd),
self-identification (sid), product interest (pin),
product pleasure (ppl), product symbolism (psi),
product importance (pim), product risk importance (rim),
product risk probability (rip), overall satisfaction (os),
satisfaction vs. expectation (se), satisfaction vs. ideal (si),
cognitive loyalty (cog), affective loyalty (aff),
intentional loyalty (int), action loyalty (act).
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CONTADURÍA Y ADMINISTRACIÓN, año 70, 2025, es una publicación trimestral editada por la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Colonia Ciudad Universitaria, Delegación Coyoacán, C.P. 04510, México, Ciudad de México, a través de la División de Investigación de la Facultad de Contaduría y Administración - UNAM, Circuito Exterior, s/n, Colonia Ciudad Universitaria, Delegación Coyoacán, C.P. 04510, México, Ciudad de México., Tels. (55) 56 22 84 57, (55) 56 22 84 58 Ext. 144 y (55) 56 22 84 94, http://www.cya.unam.mx, correo electrónico: revista_cya@fca.unam.mx, Editor responsable: José Alberto García Narváez, Reserva de Derechos al Uso Exclusivo No. 04-2016-071316434900-203, otorgada por el Instituto Nacional del Derecho de Autor, ISSN 2448-8410, Responsable de la última actualización de este Número, División de Investigación de la Facultad de Contaduría y Administración-UNAM, José Alberto García Narváez, Circuito Exterior, s/n, Colonia Ciudad Universitaria, Delegación Coyoacán, C.P. 04510, México, Cd., Mx., fecha de última modificación, 29 de enero de 2025.
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Contaduría y Administración by División de Investigación de la Facultad de Contaduría y Administración is licensed under a Creative Commons Reconocimiento- 4.0 Internacional.
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ISSN: 0186-1042 (Print) 2448-8410 (Online)